Progress in energy storage of depleted oil and gas reservoirs: a perspective based on fluid migration
Abstract
Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are important infrastructure for natural gas strategic reserves, CO₂ geological storage, and H₂ large-scale storage. The core scientific problem lies in the migration mechanism of various fluids in complex geological bodies. This article elucidates the controlling role of geological factors on migration behavior from four aspects: pore permeability structure, heterogeneity, rock mechanics properties, and original fluid occurrence. Furthermore, the differences in physicochemical properties of natural gas, CO₂, and H₂ were compared, and based on the characteristics of reservoir space, the research objects were divided into porous matrix bodies, fractured matrix bodies, and cavern injection production well complexes, and the migration laws of different fluids were analyzed separately. Research has shown that H₂ faces dual challenges of water locking and leakage due to its extremely low viscosity and strong diffusivity. CO₂ has strong chemical activity and non-monotonic evolution of permeability driven by dissolution precipitation competition. The physical properties of CH4 are balanced, and the transport behavior can be predicted. The type of storage space further amplifies the complexity of medium response, with cracks serving as both high-speed channels and leakage risk sources, while karst cave systems exhibit a macroscopic migration pattern dominated by free flow and gravity differentiation. The current bottleneck lies in the fatigue damage induced by injection production cycles, the dynamic evolution of traps under thermal fluid solidification coupling, and the control of complex fracture network seepage. It is urgent to break through cross scale experiments and numerical simulations to provide theoretical support for the safe and efficient operation of reservoirs throughout their entire life cycle.
Article Type: Review article
Cited as:
Jiang CB, Tang SS, Wu MY, et al. 2026. Progress in Energy Storage of Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs: a Perspective Based on Fluid Migration. GeoStorage, 2(2), 137-155.
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.46690/gs.2026.02.03Keywords:
Fluid migration, depleted oil and gas reservoir, fracture-matrix coupling, energy storage, porous flowReferences
Alzaabi A, Alzahrani H M, Alhosani A, et al. 2025. Wettability, pore occupancy, connectivity and Ostwald ripening of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen in carbonate rocks: A comparative study. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 135: 596–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.04.399.
Bal A, Misra S. 2024. Laboratory Observation of Fluid Flow in Depleted Shale Gas Reservoir: Coupling Effect of Sorbing and Non-sorbing Gas on Stress, Slippage, Flow Regime in Anisotropic and Fractured Shales. Energy & Fuels, 38(8): 6868–6890. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.energyfuels.3c05192.
Bensing J P, David M, David S, et al. 2022. Hydrogen-induced calcite dissolution in Amaltheenton Formation claystones: Implications for underground hydrogen storage caprock integrity. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47(71): 30621–30626. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.07.023.
Bo Z, Hörning S, Underschultz J R, et al. 2024. Effects of geological heterogeneity on gas mixing during underground hydrogen storage (UHS) in braided-fluvial reservoirs. Fuel, 357: 129949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2023.129949.
Chen Z. 2025. Challenges and opportunities of CO2 storage in depleted shallow gas reservoirs in Alberta Oilsands area, Western Canada Sedimentary Basin, Canada. Fuel, 381: 133384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2024.133384.
D’Orazio A, Karimipour A, Ranjbarzadeh R. 2023. Lattice Boltzmann Modelling of Fluid Flow through Porous Media: A Comparison between Pore-Structure and Representative Elementary Volume Methods. Energies, 16(14): 5354. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145354.
Deng P, Ma H, Song J, et al. 2025. Carbon dioxide as cushion gas for large-scale underground hydrogen storage: Mechanisms and implications. Applied Energy, 388: 125622. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125622.
Doan Q T, Keshavarz A, Miranda C R, et al. 2024. A prediction of interfacial tension by using molecular dynamics simulation: A study on effects of cushion gas (CO2, N2 and CH4) for Underground Hydrogen Storage. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 50: 1607–1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2023.10.156.
Evro S, Oni B A, Tomomewo O S. 2025. Repurposing depleted unconventional reservoirs for hydrogen storage: Challenges and opportunities. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 99: 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.212.
Fang B, Zhang Z, Zhang Q, et al. 2025. Molecular insights into two-phase flow in clay nanopores during gas hydrate recovery: Wettability-induced multiple pathways of water lock formation. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 17(1): 17–29. https://doi.org/10.46690/ager.2025.07.02.
Fani M, Strand S, Puntervold T, et al. 2024. Geochemical effects of carbonated water on reservoir and caprock minerals for carbon capture and storage. Gas Science and Engineering, 124: 205246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jgsce.2024.205246.
He W, Chen K, Hayatdavoudi A, et al. 2019. Effects of clay content, cement and mineral composition characteristics on sandstone rock strength and deformability behaviors. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 176: 962–969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.02.016.
Heidarabad R G, Shin K. 2024. Carbon Capture and Storage in Depleted Oil and Gas Reservoirs: The Viewpoint of Wellbore Injectivity. Energies, 17: 1201. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17051201.
Juanes R, Spiteri E J, Orr Jr. F M, et al. 2006. Impact of relative permeability hysteresis on geological CO2 storage. Water Resources Research, 42(12). https://doi.org/10.1029/2005WR004806.
Kim C, Devegowda D, Dang S T, et al. 2025. Modeling the diffusivity of hydrogen and the associated cushion gas in depleted hydrocarbon reservoir caprocks. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 105: 248–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.01.063.
Kowalski J, Klimkowski L, Nagy S. 2023. Numerical Simulation Study on Underground Gas Storage with Cushion Gas Partially Replaced with Carbon Dioxide. Energies, 16(14): 5248. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16145248.
Lardhi M, Haq B, Al Shehri D, et al. 2025. Hydrogen storage in depleted oil reservoirs: Insight into bibliometric analysis, influencing factors, selection of cushion gas and potential sites. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 101: 1329–1361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.483.
Li Y, Yang Y, Dong M, et al. 2022. Effect of Pore Structure and Capillary Number on Gas-Water Flow Patterns in Carbonate Rocks. SPE Journal, 27(04): 1895–1904. https://doi.org/10.2118/209615-pa.
Liu X, Geng S, Sun J, et al. 2024. Novel coupled hydromechanical model considering multiple flow mechanisms for simulating underground hydrogen storage in depleted low-permeability gas reservoir. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 85: 526–538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.08.366.
Ma M, Emami-Meybodi H, Zhang F, et al. 2024. Mass transport modelling of two partially miscible, multicomponent fluids in nanoporous media. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 999: A21. https://doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2024.431.
Ma X, Zheng D, Wei G, et al. 2022. Development directions of major scientific theories and technologies for underground gas storage. Natural Gas Industry, 42(5): 93–99. https://doi.org/10.3787/j.issn.1000-0976.2022.05.010.
Mirchi V, Dejam M. 2023. Effect of rock surface wettability on hydrogen-cushion gas adsorption with application to hydrogen storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs. Journal of Energy Storage, 73: 109152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.109152.
Muhammed NS, Haq B, Al Shehri D, et al. 2022. A review on underground hydrogen storage: Insight into geological sites, influencing factors and future outlook. Energy Reports, 8: 461–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egyr.2021.12.002.
Muhammed NS, Haq MB, Al Shehri DA, et al. 2023. Hydrogen storage in depleted gas reservoirs: A comprehensive review. Fuel, 337: 127032. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.127032.
Nicot JP, Solano S, Lu J, et al. 2013. Potential Subsurface Impacts of CO2 Stream Impurities on Geologic Carbon Storage. Energy Procedia, 37: 4552–4559. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2013.06.362.
Pu Z, Tian Y, Fu J, et al. 2025. Stress-sensitive porosity and permeability in carbonate rocks for underground hydrogen storage: A digital rock simulation study. International Journal of Coal Science & Technology, 12(1): 55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40789-025-00806-0.
Qiu X, Liu H, Liu M, et al. 2023. Pore Structure Evolution in Sandstone of Underground Gas Storage during Cyclic Injection and Production Based on Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Technology. Energies, 16(5): 2096. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16052096.
Ranjbarzadeh R, Sappa G. 2025. Numerical and Experimental Study of Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer in Porous Media: A Review Article. Energies, 18(4): 976. https://doi.org/10.3390/en18040976.
Raza A, Gholami R, Rezaee R, et al. 2019. Significant aspects of carbon capture and storage – A review. Petroleum, 5(4): 335–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petlm.2018.12.007.
Ren J, Gao Z, Wang Y. 2025. Advancements in Pore-Scale Imaging of CO2 Desiccation Dynamics: A Review of Experimental Method for Deep Saline Aquifer Storage Systems. 1(2): 137–157. https://doi.org/10.46690/gs.2025.02.04.
Rhouma SB, Chabab S, Broseta D. 2024. Synergies of storing hydrogen at the crest of CO2 or other gas storage. Greenhouse Gases: Science and Technology, 14: 587–606. https://doi.org/10.1002/ghg.2278.
Song R, Chen J, Zou S, et al. 2026. Review on Carbon Sequestration in Salt Rock Caverns: Application, Theory and Potentials in China. Advances in Geo-Energy Research, 2(1): 1–13. https://doi.org/10.46690/gs.2026.01.01.
Song Y, Song R, Liu J, et al. 2025. Evaluation on H2 , N2 , He & CH4 diffusivity in rock and leakage rate by diffusion in underground gas storage. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 100: 234–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.299.
Sotiriadou SG, Antoniadis KD, Assael MJ, et al. 2025. Correlation for the Viscosity of Methane (CH4) from the Triple Point to 625 K and Pressures to 1000 MPa. International Journal of Thermophysics, 47(1): 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10765-025-03690-7.
Tan Y, Nookuea W, Li H, et al. 2016. Property impacts on Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) processes: A review. Energy Conversion and Management, 118: 204–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2016.03.079.
Tawiah P, Duer J, Bryant SL, et al. 2020. CO2 injectivity behaviour under non-isothermal conditions – Field observations and assessments from the Quest CCS operation. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 92: 102843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2019.102843.
Thaysen EM, Butler IB, Hassanpouryouzband A, et al. 2023. Pore-scale imaging of hydrogen displacement and trapping in porous media. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 48(8): 3091–3106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.10.153.
Torsæter M, Cerasi P. 2018. Geological and geomechanical factors impacting loss of near-well permeability during CO2 injection. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control, 76: 193–199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijggc.2018.07.006.
Visentini AF, Hidalgo JJ, Cueto-Felgueroso L, et al. 2025. Gas spreading and mixing in heterogeneous porous media for underground hydrogen storage. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 146: 149753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.05.383.
Wang C, Wang W, Su Y, et al. 2023. Assessment of CO2 storage potential in high water-cut fractured volcanic gas reservoirs—Case study of China’s SN gas field. Fuel, 335:126999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2022.126999.
Wang FY, Yue H, Zhu WY. 2025. Shale oil reservoir apparent permeability model considering nano confinement effects and pore-fracture combination patterns. Acta Petrolei Sinica, 46(4): 779–788. https://doi.org/10.7623/syxb202504008.
Wang H, Jie Y, Zhou D, et al. 2024. Underground hydrogen storage in depleted gas reservoirs with hydraulic fractures: Numerical modeling and simulation. Journal of Energy Storage, 97: 112777. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2024.112777.
Wang H, Xu J, Lu J, et al. 2025. Current situation and application prospect of large−scale geological hydrogen storage engineering. Geology in China, 52(1): 180–204. https://doi.org/10.12029/gc20240124002.
Wang Q, Zhang M, Zhou F, et al. 2024. Experiment and prediction of enhanced gas storage capacity in depleted gas reservoirs for clean energy applications. Renewable Energy, 237: 121894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2024.121894.
Wei H, Zhong Z, Cheng J, et al. 2026. The underground gas storage capacity evaluation-A case study from depleted oil reservoirs to underground gas storage. Fuel, 406: 137079. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2025.137079.
Wen C, Jia S, Fu X, et al. 2025. Semi-analytical assessment of dynamic sealing capacity of underground gas storage: A case of Songliao Basin, Northeastern China. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 17(5): 2904–2927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2024.06.007.
Williams HA, Heinemann N, Molnar IL, et al. 2025. Hydrogen storage in depleted gas reservoirs with carbon dioxide as a cushion gas: Exploring a lateral gas separation strategy to reduce gas mixing. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 102: 1116–1129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2024.12.371.
Xie Y, Hou MZ, Liu H, et al. 2024. Anisotropic timedependent behaviors of shale under direct shearing and associated empirical creep models. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 16(4): 1262–1279. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrmge.2023.05.001.
Xue W, Wang Y, Chen Z, et al. 2023. An integrated model with stable numerical methods for fractured underground gas storage. Journal of Cleaner Production, 393: 136268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136268.
Yang C, Wang T. 2023. Opportunities, challenges, and development suggestions for deep underground energy storage in China. Chinese Science Bulletin, 68(36): 4887–4894. https://doi.org/10.1360/TB-2023-0841.
Yang J, Ju B, Yang A, et al. 2024. Feasibility of Carbon Dioxide as Cushion Gas in Depleted Gas Reservoirs: An Experiment Study on CO2–CH4 Dispersion during Flow Alternation. Energies, 17(18): 4676. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17184676.
Yinan Q, Shice X, Jingxiu X. 1985. Deposition pattern and in-layer heterogeneity of clastic reservoirs. Journal of Petroleum, (01): 41–49. https://doi.org/10.7623/syxb198501006.
Ying Q, Wang D, Zhang H, et al. 2023. Deformation Characteristics and Permeability Properties of Cap Rocks in Gas Storage of Depleted Reservoirs under Alternating Load. Processes, 11(11): 3114. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11113114.
Zamehrian M, Sedaee B. 2022. Underground hydrogen storage in a naturally fractured gas reservoir: The role of fracture. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 47(93): 39606–39618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.09.116.
Zeng K, Jiang P, Xu R. 2025. Utilization of methane and carbon dioxide as cushion gas in underground hydrogen storage: An insight from molecular simulation on competitive adsorption and diffusion in shale organic nanopore. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 185: 151949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2025.151949.
Zeng L, Sander R, Chen Y, et al. 2024. Hydrogen Storage Performance During Underground Hydrogen Storage in Depleted Gas Reservoirs: A Review. Engineering, 40: 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eng.2024.03.011.
Zeng Z, Grigg R. 2006. A Criterion for Non-Darcy Flow in Porous Media. Transport in Porous Media, 63(1): 57–69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-005-2720-3.
Zhang C, Chen S, Zhu X, et al. 2024. Classification and characteristics of source-reservoir interlayer and its controlling effect on oil-gas enrichment in continental tight reservoir. Acta Petrolei Sinica, 45(2): 358–373. https://doi.org/10.7623/syxb202402003.
Zhang G, Li B, Zheng D, et al. 2017. Challenges to and proposals for underground gas storage (UGS) business in China. Natural Gas Industry B, 4(3): 231–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ngib.2017.07.025.
Zhang Q, Cao R, Jia Z, et al. 2026. Mutiscal simulation study on the sealing charateristics of cap rock for hydrogen storage in depleted gas reservoirs. Chinese Journal of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, 58(3): 751–762. https://doi.org/10.6052/0459-1879-25-358.
Zhang T, Wang BR, Zhao YL, et al. 2024. Inter-layer interference for multi-layered tight gas reservoir in the absence and presence of movable water. Petroleum Science, 21(3): 1751–1764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petsci.2024.01.009.
Zhong X, Zhu Y, Liu L, et al. 2020. The characteristics and influencing factors of permeability stress sensitivity of tight sandstone reservoirs. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 191: 107221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2020.107221.
Zhou J, Shen K, Xie W, et al. 2025. Numerical simulation on the pressure distribution of hydraulic jet perforation tunnel in natural gas hydrate reservoirs. Scientific Reports, 15(1): 6171. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-90812-8.
Downloads
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 GeoStorage
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.